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.gr
.gr is the country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Greece. Registrations are processed via accredited registrars and domain names in Greek characters may also be registered.
External links
- [http://www.iana.org/root-whois/gr.htm IANA .gr whois information]
- [https://grweb.ics.forth.gr/ .gr registry website]
- [http://www.eett.gr/gr_pages/telec/Domainnames/kataxorites/list_katahoriton.php List of .gr accredited registrars]
G r
G r
G r
Country code top-level domainA country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is a top-level domain used and reserved for a country or a dependent territory. These are two letters long, and most of them correspond to the ISO 3166-1 standard for country codes.
General information
There are over 243 ccTLDs; see the list of Internet TLDs and [http://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htm IANA's list of ccTLDs]. Most ccTLDs correspond to the two-letter ISO 3166-1 country codes, but there are several differences, explained below. Each country appoints managers for its ccTLD and sets the rules for allocating domains. Some countries allow anyone in the world to acquire a domain in their ccTLD, for example Armenia (am), Austria (at) Cocos (Keeling) Islands (cc), Germany (de), Niue (nu), Samoa (ws), Tonga (to), Turkmenistan (tm) and Tuvalu (tv). Other countries or dependent territories allow only residents to acquire a domain in their ccTLD, for example Australia (au), Canada (ca) and Mongolia (mn).
ISO 3166-1 codes not used as ccTLDs
The codes EH and KP, although theoretically available as ccTLDs for Western Sahara and North Korea, have never been assigned and do not exist in DNS.
Similarly, the new codes CS (Serbia and Montenegro) and AX (Åland Islands) are not yet assigned as ccTLDs (cs was previously assigned to Czechoslovakia). TL (post-independence East Timor), is now being introduced to replace TP.
All other current ISO 3166-1 codes have been assigned and do exist in DNS.
However, some of these are effectively unused.
In particular, the ccTLDs for the Norwegian territories Bouvet Island (bv) and Svalbard (sj) do exist in DNS, but no subdomains have been assigned, and it is Norid policy not to assign any at present.
Only one domain (dra.hmg.gb, for the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency) is still registered in gb (United Kingdom, although the letters actually stand for Great Britain, a subset of the UK) and no new registrations are being accepted for it. Sites in the UK use uk (see below).
ccTLDs not in ISO 3166-1
Nine ccTLDs are currently in use despite not being ISO 3166-1 two-letter codes:
- uk (United Kingdom): The ISO 3166-1 code for the United Kingdom is GB, however JANET had already selected uk as a top-level identifier for a pre-existing naming scheme, and this was incorporated into the top-level. gb was assigned with the intention of a transition, but this never occurred and the use of uk is now entrenched.
- su (the obsolete ISO 3166-1 code for Soviet Union): The su managers stated in 2001 they will commence accepting new su registrations, but it is unclear whether this action is compatible with ICANN policy.
- ac (Ascension Island), gg (Guernsey), im (Isle of Man) and je (Jersey): These codes came from IANA's decision in 1996 to allow the use of codes reserved in the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 reserve list for use by the Universal Postal Union. The decision was later reversed, and only these four ccTLDs were assigned under this rule.
- eu (European Union): On September 25, 2000, ICANN decided to allow the use of any two-letter code in the ISO 3166-1 reserve list that is reserved for all purposes. Only EU currently meets this criterion. Following a decision by the EU's Council of Telecommunications Ministers in March 2002, progress has been slow, but a registry (named [http://www.eurid.org/ EURid]) has been chosen by the European Commission, and criteria for allocation set: ICANN approved the eu as a ccTLD, and opened for registrations on 7 December 2005 for the holders of prior rights. From 7 April 2006 registration will be available for all.
- tp (the previous ISO 3166-1 code for East Timor): To be phased out in favour of tl during 2005.
- yu (the previous ISO 3166-1 code for Serbia and Montenegro, when it was still known as Yugoslavia)
Unconventional ccTLD usage
Lenient registration restrictions on certain ccTLDs has resulted in domain names like I.am, start.at and go.to. Other variations of ccTLD usage have been called domain hacks, where the Second-level domain and ccTLD are used together to form one word or one title. This has resulted in domains like blo.gs of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (gs), del.icio.us of United States of America (us), and cr.yp.to of Tonga (to). (Non country code TLDs have also been used, like inter.net which uses the .net gTLD, probably the first domain hack ever.)
Historical ccTLDs
There are two ccTLDs which have been deleted after the corresponding 2-letter code was withdrawn from ISO_3166-1, namely cs (for Czechoslovakia) and zr (for Zaire). There may be a significant delay between withdrawal from ISO 3166-1 and deletion from the DNS; for example, ZR ceased to be an ISO 3166-1 code in 1997, but the zr ccTLD was not deleted until 2001. Other ccTLDs corresponding to obsolete ISO 3166-1 have not yet been deleted; in some cases they may never be deleted due to the amount of disruption this would cause for a heavily used ccTLD. In particular, the Soviet Union's ccTLD su remains in use more than a decade after SU was removed from ISO 3166-1.
See also
- top-level domain
- domain hack
External links
- [http://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htm IANA's list of ccTLDs] - official site.
- [http://xona.com/domainhacks/ Domain Hacks] - domain hack search utility, extensively uses ccTLDs in unconventional ways.
- [http://xona.com/domainhacks/suggest/ Domain Hacks Suggest] - 300,000+ domain hack suggestions filtered by first letter, word length, and TLD.
Category:Top-level domains
Domain name
The term domain name has multiple meanings, all related to the Domain Name System (main article).
- a name that is entered into a computer (e.g. as part of a website or other URL, or an email address) and then looked up in the global [Domain Name System] which informs the computer of the IP address(es) with that name.
- the product that registrars provide to their customers.
- a name looked up in the DNS for other purposes.
They are sometimes colloquially (and incorrectly) referred to by marketers as "web addresses".
Domain names are Hostnames that provide rememberable names to stand in for numeric IP addresses. They allow for any service to move to a different location in the topology of the Internet (or another internet), which would then have a different IP address.
Each string of letters, digits and hyphens between the dots is called a label in the parlance of the domain name system (DNS). Valid labels are subject to certain rules, which have relaxed over the course of time. Originally labels must start with a letter, and end with a letter or digit; any intervening characters may be letters, digits, or hyphens. Labels must be between 1 and 63 characters long (inclusive). Letters are ASCII A–Z and a–z; domain names are compared case-insensitively. Later it became permissible for labels to commence with a digit (but not for domain names to be entirely numeric), and for labels to contain internal underscores, but support for such domain names is uneven. These are the rules imposed by the way names are looked up ("resolved") by DNS. Some top level domains (see below) impose more rules, such as a longer minimum length, on some labels. Fully qualified names (FQDNs) are sometimes written with a final dot.
Translating numeric addresses to alphabetical ones, domain names allow Internet users to localize and visit websites. Additionally since more than one IP address can be assigned to a domain name, and more than one domain name assigned to an IP address, one server can have multiple roles, and one role can be spread among multiple servers. One IP address can even be assigned to several servers, such as with anycast and hijacked IP space.
Examples
The following examples illustrates the difference between a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and a domain name:
: URL: http://www.example.com/
: Domain name: www.example.com
As a general rule, the IP address and the server name are interchangeable. For most internet services, the server will not have any way to know which was used. However, the explosion of interest in the web means that there are far more websites than servers. To accommodate this, the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) specifies that the client tells the server which name is being used. This way, one server with one IP address can provide different sites for different domain names. This feature is goes under the name virtual hosting and is commonly used by web hosts.
For example, the server at 192.0.34.166 handles all of the following sites:
: www.example.com
: www.example.net
: www.example.org
Top-level domains
Every domain name ends in a top-level domain (TLD) name, which is always either one of a small list of generic names (three or more characters), or a two characters territory code based on ISO-3166 (there are few exceptions and new codes are integrated case by case).
Examples of (gTLD) extensions are:
- .com
- .net
- .org
- .biz
- .info
- .name
- .museum
- .travel
- .pro
- .aero
- .xxx (disapproved by ICANN)
Examples of country code top-level domain (ccTLD) extensions are:
- .au
- .eu (not an ISO-3166 code, and not a country, but used anyway for the European Union. Scheduled to be launched December 7, 2005)
- .us
- .uk (not an ISO-3166 code, but used anyway)
- .br
- .fr
- .es
- .de
- .in
- .it
- .jp
- .ca
- .nz
- .su (not an existing country at the moment - Soviet Union, but used anyway)
Official assignment
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) has overall responsibility for managing the DNS. It controls the root domain, delegating control over each top-level domain to a domain name registry. For ccTLDs, the domain registry is typically controlled by the government of that country. ICANN has a consultation role in these domain registries but is in no position to regulate the terms and conditions of how a domain name is allocated or who allocates it in each of these country level domain registries. On the other hand, generic top-level domains (gTLDs) are governed directly under ICANN which means all terms and conditions are defined by ICANN with the cooperation of the gTLD registries.
Domain names which are theoretically leased can be considered in the same way as real estate, due to a significant impact on online brand building, advertising, search engine optimization, etc.
Uses and abuses
As domain names became attractive to marketers, rather than just the technical audience for which they were originally intended, they began to be used in manners that in many cases did not fit in their intended structure. As originally planned, the structure of domain names followed a strict hierarchy in which the top level domain indicated the type of organization (commercial, governmental, etc.), and addresses would be nested down to third, fourth, or further levels to express complex structures, where, for instance, branches, departments, and subsidiaries of a parent organization would have addresses which were subdomains of the parent domain. Also, hostnames were intended to correspond to actual physical machines on the network, generally with only one name per machine. However, once the World Wide Web became popular, site operators frequently wished to have memorable addresses, regardless of whether they fit properly in the structure; thus, since the .com domain was the most popular and memorable, even noncommercial sites would often get addresses under it, and sites of all sorts wished to have second-level domain registrations even if they were parts of a larger entity where a logical subdomain would have made sense (e.g., abcnews.com instead of news.abc.com). A website found at http://www.example.org will often be advertised without the "http://", and in most cases can be reached by just typing "example.org" into a web browser. In the case of a .com, the website can sometimes be reached by just typing "example" (depending on browser versions and configuration settings, which vary in how they interpret incomplete addresses). With "virtual hosting", often many domain names would point to the same physical server.
The popularity of domain names also led to uses which were regarded as abusive by established companies with trademark rights; this was known as cybersquatting, in which somebody took a name that resembled a trademark in order to profit from traffic to that address. To combat this, various laws and policies were enacted to allow abusive registrations to be forcibly transferred, but these were sometimes themselves abused by overzealous companies committing reverse domain hijacking against domain users who had legitimate grounds to hold their names, such as their being generic words as well as trademarks in a particular context, or their use in the context of fan or protest sites with free speech rights of their own.
Generic domain names — problems arising out of unregulated name selection
Within a particular top-level domain, parties are generally free to select an unallocated domain name as their own on a first come, first served basis. For generic or commonly used names, this may sometimes lead to the use of a domain name which is inaccurate or misleading. This problem can be seen with regard to the ownership or control of domain names for a generic product or service.
By way of illustration, there has been tremendous growth in the number and size of literary festivals around the world in recent years. In this context, currently a generic domain name such as literary.org is available to the first literary festival organisation which is able to obtain registration, even if the festival in question is very young or obscure. Some critics would argue that there is greater amenity in reserving such domain names for the use of, for example, a regional or umbrella grouping of festivals. Related issues may also arise in relation to non-commercial domain names.
Unconventional domain names
Due to the rarity of one-word dot-com domain names, many unconventional domain names, domain hacks, have been gaining popularity. They make use of the top-level domain as an integral part of the website's title. Two of the most visited domain hack websites are del.icio.us and blo.gs, which spell out 'delicious' and 'blogs', respectively.
Some unconventional domain names are also used to create email hacks. Non-working examples that spell 'James' are j@m.es and j@mes.com, which use the domain names m.es (of Spain's .es) and mes.com.
Commercial resale of domain names
An economic effect of the widespread usage of domain names has been the resale market for generic domain names that has sprung up in the last decade. Certain domains, especially those related to business, gambling, pornography, and other commercially lucrative fields have become very much in demand to corporations and entrepreneurs due to their intrinsic value in attracting clients. In fact, the most expensive internet domain name to date, according to Guinness World Records, is business.com which was resold in 1999 for $7.5 million. Another high value domain name, sex.com, was stolen from its rightful owner by means of a forged transfer instruction via fax. During the height of the dot-com era, the domain was earning millions of dollars per month in advertising revenue from the large influx of visitors that arrived daily. Two long-running US lawsuits resulted, one against the thief and one against the domain registrar VeriSign[http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,63142,00.html]. In one of the cases, the judge found in favor of the plaintiff, leading to an unprecendented ruling that classified domain names as property, granting them the same legal protections. In 1999, Microsoft traded the valuable name Bob.com for the name Windows2000.com which was the name of their new operating system.[http://www.theregister.com/1999/11/11/windows2000_com_owner_sells_domain/]
One of the reasons for the value of domain names is that even without advertising or marketing, they attract clients seeking services and products who simply type in the generic name. Furthermore, generic domain names such as Rent.com or Books.com are extremely easy for potential customers to remember, increasing the probability that they become repeat customers or regular clients.
Although the current domain market is nowhere as strong as it was during the dot-com heyday, it remains strong and is currently experiencing solid growth again. Annually tens of millions of dollars change hands due to the resale of domains. Large numbers of registered domain names lapse and are deleted each year. On average 25,000 domain names drop (are deleted) every day.
Caveat Emptor
Care should always be exercised when registering a domain name: DNS is case-insensitive and the modern trend of words run together with intercapping can be misinterpreted when converted to lowercase. Who Represents, a database of artists and agents, chose
http://www.whorepresents.com; Experts Exchange, the programmers' site, famously had http://www.expertsexchange.com; Pen Island unwisely chose http://www.penisland.net; a therapists' network thought http://www.therapistfinder.com looked good and of course the Italian power company PowerGen Italia became http://www.powergenitalia.com.
Fortunately the dash is allowable in DNS, a fact possibly unknown to those organisations listed above.
DNS is case-insensitive, so CAMFT's website can be advertised as http://www.TherapistFinder.com (instead of http://www.therapistfinder.com).
See also
- Uniform Resource Locator
- webpage
- website
- World Wide Web
- cname
- domain hack
- Free domain names
External links
- [http://www.dnjournal.com/ Domain Name Journal] - Covering the Domain Name Industry with Profiles and News.
- [http://www.domainnamewire.com/ Domain Name Wire] - Latest news about Domain Name Industry, domain sales, and legal issues.
- [http://www.gobin.info/domainname/ Domain Name Universe] - List of all existing Domain Name Registries, global Domain Name Search, Latest news.
- [http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/std/std13.html STD 13/RFC 1034], Domain Names—Concepts and Facilities, an Internet Protocol Standard.
- [http://www.icann.org/ ICANN] - Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers.
- [http://www.icann.org/udrp/udrp.htm UDRP], Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy.
- [http://www.internic.net/ Internic.net], public information regarding Internet domain name registration services.
- [http://lifeofawebsite.com/begin/country-specific-domains.php List of Country Specific Domains]
- [http://www.circleid.com/ CircleID], Community discussions on TLDs and Internet infrastructure.
- [http://xona.com/domainhacks/ Domain Hacks] - unconventional domain name search utility
- The authoritative definition is that given in
- RFC 1032 - Domain administrators guide
- RFC 1033 - Domain administrators operations guide
- RFC 1034 - Domain names - concepts and facilities
- RFC 1035 - Domain names - implementation and specification
Category:Domain Name System
Category:InternetCategory:Information technology
Category:Identifiers
als:Domäne (Internet)
ja:ドメイン名
Category:Country code top-level domainsCategory:Top-level domains
Category:CENTR membersCENTR members are TLDs whose operators belong to the Council of European National Top Level Domain Registries (CENTR), which acts as a peak body of ccTLD operators. Whilst membership started in Europe, there are members from throughout the world.
Category:Country code top-level domains КомитопулиКомитопулите са български боляри, както и династия, управлявала в края на 10 и началото на 11 век.
През 970 г., когато Източна България била окупирана от войските на киевския княз Святослав (син на българската княгиня Св. Олга), в западните български земи като независими от Преслав български владетели се установили братята Давид, Мойсей, Арон и Самуил. Те били синове на българския управител (комит) на Средецката област Никола, поради което били наричани от съвременниците комитопули, т.е. синове на комит.
Родът на комитопулите не само бил български по произход, но и принадлежал към представителите на българското болярство. След 971 г., когато император Йоан Цимисхи завладял Източна България, владенията на комитопутлите започнали да привличат онези български боляри, които желаели да продължи борбата срещу Византия. При комитопулите се установил и Преславският патриарх Дамян, който по този начин показал, че независимите български земи за продължители на държавната и църковна традиция на Преславска България. Опрени на тази традиция и на многобройния слой все още лично свободни селяни в планинските области на Западна и Югозападна България, четиримата комитопули започнали борба срещу Византия. Четиримата братя-комитопули управлявали съвместно свободните западнобългарски земи, като всеки един от тях имал свое седалище и свой сектор от фронта с Византия. Най-възрастният - Давид, бил в Костурско и Преспанско, вторият - Мойсей, - в Струмишко, третият - Арон, - в Софийско, четвъртият - Самуил, - вероятно във Видинско.
До 976 г. комитопулите укрепвали своята власт в областта от Видин до Южна Македония, възстановили дипломатическите контакти на българската държава с германския император Отон I и се готвили за голямо настъпление срещу Византия. Благоприятният момент за това настъпил в годината на смъртта на император Йоан Цимисхи (976 г.). Неговият приемник император Василий II се изправил пред сериозни вътрешни проблеми и нямал сили да спре започналото българско настъпление. Чрез бързи военни действия българите постигнали освобождаване на Източна България от византийска власт. Войските на Мойсей и Давид напредвали на юг към Тесалия и на югоизток към Сяр. В хода на военните операции двамата по-възрастни комитопули намерили своята гибел. Арон от своя страна се поддал на интригите на византийската дипломация и се опитал с византийска помощ да стане едноличен владетел на българските земи. Заговорът му бил разкрит от брат му Самуил. Според нравите на времето Арон и целият му род били наказани със смърт в областта Разметаница (около гр. Дупница). Пощаден бил само Ароновият син, бъдещият български цар Иван Владислав. Тези събития са предпоставка за бъдещото еднолично управление на Самуил. През 997 г., след смъртта на цар Роман и отмирането на Крумовата династия, Самуил е провъзгласен за цар, с което се поставя началото на краткото управление на владетелите от династията на комитопулите.
Категория:България през Средновековието
Категория:Първа българска държава
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